TEST 1:
Henry II (5 March 1133 – 6 July 1189) was King of England from 1154 until his death in 1189. At various points in his life, he controlled England, substantial parts of Wales and Ireland, and a large part of France (including Normandy, Aquitaine and Anjou), an area that was later called the Angevin Empire. At times, Henry also held a strong influence over Scotland and the Duchy of Brittany.
Henry became politically involved by the age of fourteen in the efforts of his mother, Matilda, daughter of Henry I of England, to claim the English throne, then held by a cousin, Stephen of Blois. Henry’s father, Geoffrey, made him Duke of Normandy in 1150, and upon his death in 1151, Henry inherited Anjou and Maine and spent some time on the Continent consolidating his rule there. His marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine brought him control of the Duchy of Aquitaine. Stephen agreed to make Henry his heir after the latter’s military expedition to England in 1153, and he inherited the kingdom on Stephen’s death a year later. Henry was an energetic and ruthless ruler, driven by a desire to restore the royal lands and prerogatives of his grandfather Henry I. During the early years of his reign Henry restored the royal administration in England, which had almost collapsed during Stephen’s reign, and re-established hegemony over Wales. Henry’s desire to control the English Church led to conflict with his former friend Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury. This controversy lasted for much of the 1160s and resulted in Becket’s murder in 1170. Soon after his accession Henry came into conflict with Louis VII of France, his feudal overlord, and the two rulers fought what has been termed a “cold war” over several decades. Henry expanded his empire at Louis’s expense, taking Brittany and pushing east into central France and south into Toulouse; despite numerous peace conferences and treaties, no lasting agreement was reached.
Henry and his wife, Eleanor, had eight children. Three of their sons would rule as king, though Henry the Young King was named his father’s nominal co-ruler rather than sole monarch. As his sons grew up, Henry struggled to find ways to satisfy their desires for land and immediate power, and there was a rise in tensions over the future inheritance of the empire, encouraged by Louis VII and his son Philip II, who succeeded to the French throne in 1180. In 1173 Henry’s heir apparent, “Young Henry”, rebelled against his father; he was joined by his brothers Richard and Geoffrey and by their mother. Several European states allied themselves with the rebels, and the Great Revolt was only defeated by Henry’s vigorous military action and talented local commanders, many of them “new men” appointed for their loyalty and administrative skills. Young Henry and Geoffrey led another revolt in 1183, during which Young Henry died of dysentery. The Norman invasion of Ireland provided lands for Henry’s youngest son, John. By 1189, Young Henry and Geoffrey were dead, and Philip swayed Richard to his side, leading to a final rebellion. Decisively defeated by Philip and Richard and suffering from a bleeding ulcer, Henry retreated to Chinon Castle in Anjou. He died soon afterward and was succeeded by his son Richard I.
Henry’s empire quickly collapsed during the reign of his son John (who succeeded Richard in 1199), but many of the changes Henry introduced during his lengthy rule had long-term consequences. Henry’s legal changes are generally considered to have laid the basis for the English Common Law, while his intervention in Brittany, Wales, and Scotland shaped the development of their societies and governmental systems. Historical interpretations of Henry’s reign have changed considerably over time. Contemporary chroniclers such as Gerald of Wales and William of Newburgh, though sometimes unfavorable, generally lauded his achievements. In the 18th century, scholars argued that Henry was a driving force in the creation of a genuinely English monarchy and, ultimately, a unified Britain. During the Victorian expansion of the British Empire, historians were keenly interested in the formation of Henry’s own empire, but they also criticized certain aspects of his private life and treatment of Becket. Late 20th-century historians have combined British and French historical accounts of Henry, challenging earlier Anglocentric interpretations of his reign.